Factores cognitivos, mórbidos y premórbidos en la formación y sustento de la creencia en lo paranormal / Cognitive, morbid and premorbid factors in the development and maintenance of paranormal beliefs

Resumen La literatura muestra una amplia gama de teorías y factores que contribuyen a la formación y mantenimiento de creencias paranormales. En este estudio se analiza una serie de variables relacionadas con las principales explicaciones propuestas en una muestra de 184 sujetos. La esquizotipia (rxy = .23, p < .001), las experiencias inusuales (rxy = .37, p < .001), la anhedonia introvertida (rxy = .28, p < .001), la habilidad de razonamiento condicional en tareas con contenido paranormal (rxy = .23, p = .001), la necesidad de afiliación (rxy = .21, p = .002) y la vivencia de experiencias extraordinarias subjetivas (rxy = .35, p < .001) correlacionaron significativamente con la creencia en lo paranormal. Los resultados son consistentes con la teoría de la compensación de necesidades de Russell y Jones (1980) e indican que la ideología puede aparecer asociada a signos premórbidos y/o ser consecuencia de psicopatología. Sin embargo, sugieren que la creencia en lo paranormal puede no ser consecuencia de una deficiencia de razonamiento probabilístico y/o condicional. Se sugiere un modelo integrador basado en el feedback entre creencia y experiencia.

Abstract Paranormal beliefs, regardless of their veracity, clearly constitute an important dimension of human psychology. Survey work across the world reveals that around 50 % of people hold at least one paranormal belief. This figure is surprisingly high considering the lack of robust scientific evidence in support of the referred phenomena, and suggests the existence of resilient psychological mechanisms at the basis of the development and maintenance of such beliefs. Researchers in the area have proposed a diversity of explanations, exploring a large number of individual factors. However, despite the generous effort, we have not been able to develop a comprehensive explanatory model capable of accommodating the body of empirical findings. With this study we aimed to contribute towards a better understanding of paranormal belief as a multicausal phenomenon. In order to achieve this, we explored a set of variables related to the main perspectives in the literature. We used a sample of 184 subjects of very diverse nationalities, ages, and cultural backgrounds. We surveyed paranormal beliefs among our participants and observed that 71 % of the sample showed traditional religious beliefs, 34 % believed in psychic phenomena such as extrasensory perception or psychokinesis, 31 % in superstition, 23 % in witchcraft, and 39 % in anomalous natural phenomena such as astrology or extraordinary life forms. Eighty four per cent of the subjects responded positively to at least one of the 26 items of paranormal beliefs evaluated in the scale. A correlation analysis was conducted between the individuals' traits and paranormal belief scores. Schizotypy (rxy = .23, p < .001), unusual experiences (rxy = .37, p < .001), introvertive anhedonia (rxy= .28, p < .001), conditional reasoning in tasks with paranormal content (rxy = .23, p = .001), need for affiliation (rxy = .21, p < .002), and report of subjective extraordinary experiences (rxy = .35, p < .001) correlated significantly with belief in the paranormal. These results are consistent with Russell and Jones' (1980) theory of compensation of basic needs and suggest that paranormal belief may rise in combination with premorbid signs of psychopathology. However, they suggest that belief in the paranormal may not be a consequence of a cognitive deficit in this type of reasoning. A multiple regression analysis revealed a five variable solution. In the equation, subjective extraordinary experiences, unusual experiences (from the schizotypy scale), need for autonomy, need for achievement, and introvertive anhedonia contributed standardized coefficients of .3, .23, .24, .22 and .13 respectively. The model explained 27 % of the variance. The findings of this study are consistent with a multicausal conception of paranormal belief. A model is proposed in which paranormal beliefs can stem from a variety of factors and, as they develop, a reciprocal interaction between experience and belief arises, contributing to their definitive accommodation in the individual's psychology. The identification and exploration of contributing factors to the development and maintenance of the paranormal belief has been very fruitful in the last decades. In addition, the explanatory hypotheses raised by the researchers do not seem to be mutually exclusive. Therefore, the simultaneous consideration of these could be a successful approach in future studies. The elaboration of an explanatory model that contemplates both the multicausality and the multidimensionality of the phenomenon could provide a qualitative leap in the area.

Sesgo atribucional en pacientes psiquiátricos, religiosos y un grupo control en el juicio de la experiencia alucinatoria: la tarea del White Christmas test / Attributional Biases in Psychiatric Patients, a Religious, and a Control Group in the Assessment of a Hallucinatory Experience: The "White Christmas Test"

RESUMEN El objetivo de este estudio es evaluar la experiencia alucinatoria auditiva en una muestra clínica de pacientes con historial psiquiátrico (p. ej., esquizofrénicos), practicantes religiosos (p. ej., cristianos evangélicos devotos) y un grupo control (sin trastorno mental y no religiosos devotos). La muestra estuvo integrada por individuos de ambos sexos. La muestra de pacientes se reclutó en 2 hospitales psiquiátricos de la Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, un grupo de practicantes religiosos (cristianos devotos) en un culto evangélico y un grupo de control no religioso y carente de síntomas psiquiátricos previos. Se aplicó el Cuestionario de Experiencias Alucinatorias y el Oxford-Liverpool Inventory Feelings and Experiences, y luego se administró el White Christmas Test, que evalúa el grado de la imaginería auditiva vívida con base en una versión del paradigma de detección de serial, en que el sujeto cree escuchar un tema musical en el trasfondo de un ruido blanco. Los pacientes mostraron mayor sesgo atribucional que los evangélicos y el grupo control, pero además los religiosos también tendieron a mostrar mayor sesgo (aunque en menor grado) que el grupo control. Además, los pacientes tendieron a mostrar más esquizotipia y experiencias alucinatorias que los evangélicos y el grupo control, pero sorprendentemente el grupo control mostró mayor esquizotipia negativa que el grupo religioso, lo cual indica que las prácticas religiosas podrían contribuir a disminuir los efectos negativos de la esquizotipia.

ABSTRACT The aim of this study was to evaluate the auditory hallucinatory experience in a clinical sample of patients with psychiatric symptoms (e.g. Schizophrenia), a religious group (eg. Christians) and a "control" group (with no mental disorder and non-religious). The sample consisted of individuals of both sexes. The patient sample was recruited in two psychiatric hospitals of Buenos Aires City, the religious from an evangelical cult, and people with no religious beliefs or previous psychiatric symptoms (control group). The Hallucinatory Experiences Questionnaire and the Oxford-Liverpool Inventory Feelings and Experiences were the measurement tools used. The White Christmas Test was also administered in order to assess the degree of vivid imagery hearing based on a version of signal detection paradigm in which the subjects think that they hear a song in the background of white noise. The results showed that patients showed greater attributional bias (compared with evangelicals and the control group), but the religious group also tended to show greater bias (although less) than the control group. In addition, patients tended to show greater schizotypal and hallucinatory experiences compared with the evangelicals and the control group, but surprisingly, the control group showed higher negative schizotypy than the religious group, which indicates that religious practices could help reduce the negative effects of schizotypy.

Experiencias perceptuales inusuales en personal de enfermería y su relación con estrés laboral, esquizotipia, absorción y empatía / Unusual perceptual experiences among nursing staff and their relation to work stress, schizoid features, absorption, and empathy / Experiências perceptuais incomuns em pessoal de enfermagem e sua relação com estresse laboral, esquizotipia, absorção e empatia

El objetivo de este estudio fue determinar la frecuencia de ciertas experiencias perceptuales inusuales en entornos hospitalarios, las denominadas Experiencias Anómalo/Paranormales con frecuencia reportadas por médicos y enfermería en el ámbito hospitalario. También, comparar el grado de estrés laboral, propensión a la esquizotipia, absorción psicológica y empatía con el paciente entre enfermera/os con experiencias y sin experiencias. Se administraron tres escalas a 344 enfermera/os de 36 hospitales y centros de salud de Buenos Aires, Argentina, que fueron agrupados entre 235 con experiencias y 109 sin experiencias. Las experiencias más comunes son sensación de presencia y/o apariciones, oír ruidos, voces o diálogos, llantos o quejas, experiencias intuitivas y extrasensoriales en relación con sus pacientes, o bien la recepción de experiencias por parte de sus propios pacientes, tales como experiencias cercanas a la muerte, prácticas de oración o intervenciones religiosas con sanaciones espontáneas, y otras experiencias anómalas relacionadas con niños. Las enfermera/os con experiencias tienden a experimentar mayor estrés laboral, sin embargo quienes quedaron en el grupo con experiencias obtuvieron una puntuación más alta en el factor Despersonalización que los del grupo sin experiencias. Asimismo, en el grupo con experiencias existió mayor absorción y tendencia a la esquizotipia, así como mayor empatía cognitiva y comprensión emocional que los de sin experiencias. Desafortunadamente, al personal de enfermería, le falta capacitación para abordar de manera adecuada el proceso de morir y el duelo, se remarca esta ausencia y se rescata la importancia del conocimiento y abordaje de estos fenómenos.

The objective of this study was to explore the frequency of certain unusual perceptual experiences within hospital environments - those denominated anomalous and paranormal experiences - which are reported by medical and nursing personnel, and to compare the degree of work stress, schizoid features tendency, absorption and empathy with the patient. Three scales were used with 344 nurses from 36 hospitals and health centers in Buenos Aires, Argentina, grouped in those who had had these unusual experiences (n = 235) and those who had not (n = 109). The related most common unusual experiences included feeling a presence, listening to noises, voices, dialogs, cries, or complaints, having extra-sensorial or intuitive feelings related to the patients, and/or their own patients feeling the same situations in addition to other death proximity, praying, and spontaneous healings related experiences, and others experiences manifested by children. Regarding the results, the nurses who had these unusual experiences, also had higher scores in the factor Depersonalization, showing more absorption and schizoid features tendency, as well as more cognitive empathy and emotional comprehension, in comparison to those nurses who had not had these unusual experiences. We believe that some nurses could be better trained in order to adequately address their patients' suffering and dying processes.

O objetivo deste estudo foi a frequência de certas experiências perceptuais incomuns em ambientes hospitalares, as denominadas Experiências Anômalo/Paranormais com frequência informadas por médicos e enfermagem no âmbito hospitalar. Também, comparar o grau de estresse laboral, propensão à esquizotipia, absorção psicológica e empatia com o paciente entre enfermeira/os com experiências e sem experiências. Administraram-se três escalas a 344 enfermeira/os de 36 hospitais e centros de saúde de Buenos Aires, Argentina, que foram agrupados entre 235 com experiências e 109 sem experiências. As experiências mais comuns são sensação de presença e/ou aparições, ouvir barulhos, vozes ou diálogos, prantos ou queixas, experiências intuitivas e extra-sensoriais em relação com seus pacientes, ou bem a recepção de tais experiências por parte de seus próprios pacientes, tais como experiências próximas à morte, práticas de oração ou intervenções religiosas com curas espontâneas, e outras experiências anômalas relacionadas com crianças. As enfermeiras/os com experiências tendem a experimentar maior estresse laboral, porém quem ficou no grupo com experiências obteve uma pontuação mais alta no fator Despersonalização que os do grupo sem experiências. Assim mesmo, no grupo com experiências existiu maior absorção e tendência à esquizotipia, assim como maior empatia cognitiva e compreensão emocional que os de sem experiências. Infelizmente, pessoal de enfermagem tem falta capacitação para tratar em forma adequada o processo de morrer e o luto, assim, se ressalta esta ausência e se resgata a importância do conhecimento a abordagem destes fenómenos.

Importancia diferencial de los componentes fundamentales de la esquizotipia: un metaanálisis / Differential importance of the basic components of schizotypy: A meta-analysis

Resumen La esquizotipia puede entenderse como un trastorno incluido en el espectro de la esquizofrenia o como rasgo psicométrico que comprende 3 dimensiones: cognitivo-perceptual, interpersonal y desorganización cognitiva. La primera se relaciona con creencias extrañas y experiencias perceptuales inusuales; la segunda, con anhedonia y déficit en relaciones interpersonales, y la desorganización se identifica con pensamientos, conductas y lenguaje raros. Diferentes estudios han intentado esclarecer cuál de estas dimensiones es el componente esencial del constructo. Para dar respuesta a esta cuestión se llevó a cabo un metaanálisis en el que se realizó una revisión sistemática de las principales bases de datos que comparan las dimensiones de esquizotipia asociadas con diferentes áreas temáticas: composición factorial, síntomas clínicos y marcadores de vulnerabilidad. A partir de 300 artículos encontrados, se seleccionaron 27 estudios. Los resultados indicaron que la dimensión interpersonal parece estar más relacionada con la sintomatología clínica, mientras que la dimensión cognitivo-perceptual predomina en la investigación sobre marcadores de vulnerabilidad. La desorganización cognitiva contribuye a ambas temáticas. Se concluye que las dimensiones de esquizotipia tienen una importancia diferencial en función de las áreas de funcionamiento psicológico en estudio.

Abstract Schizotypy can be understood as a disorder included in the schizophrenia spectrum or as a psychometric trait that includes three factors: cognitive-perceptual, interpersonal, and disorganized. The first relates to strange beliefs and unusual perceptual experiences; the second, with anhedonia and deficits in interpersonal relationships, and the third, disorganisation, is identified with strange thoughts, behaviors, and language. Several studies have attempted to clarify which of these dimensions is more relevant when predicting the construct. To answer this question, a meta-analysis was conducted using a systematic review of the major databases comparing schizotypy dimensions associated with different categories: structure, health, and vulnerability markers. A total of 27 studies were selected from 300 items found. The results indicate that the interpersonal dimension seems to be related to clinical symptoms, while the cognitive-perceptual dimension dominates research on vulnerability markers. Cognitive disorganization contributes to both topics. It is concluded that the dimensions of schizotypy have a differential importance in terms of the areas of psychological functioning under study.

Diferencias individuales en la frecuencia del recuerdo de sueños exóticos / Individual differences in exotic dreams recall

El objetivo de este estudio es, por una parte, determinar las características de personalidad entre individuos que recuerdan sueños y, por otra, comparar las puntuaciones obtenidas en la alteración dormital, el neuroticismo y la extroversión, y los indicadores de propensión a la esquizotipia en individuos que no recuerdan sueños. Para este fin, se examinó la frecuencia del recuerdo del sueño con contenido extraño, inusual, y anómalo-paranormal.Vale la pena resaltar que pocos estudios han explorado las diferencias individuales en relación con tales sueños. En este estudio se reagrupó una muestra de 231 individuos de ambos sexos que puntuaron su calidad en el recuerdo del sueño entre alta (n = 57) y baja (n = 174). Se emplearon tres instrumentos que miden la etapa dormital y dos que miden el neuroticismo, la extroversión y la esquizotipia. Los sueños exóticos más frecuentes son los auditivos, los lúcidos, los recurrentes, los psíquicos y los asociados al recuerdo de personas fallecidas. Las puntuaciones altas en la alteración del sueño, las experiencias esquizotípicas y las experiencias hipnagógicas e hipnopómpicas caracterizan a los soñadores en comparación con los no soñadores. Este estudio sostiene la idea de que ciertos indicadores de propensión a la esquizotipia están asociados a la frecuencia del recuerdo de sueños exóticos.

This study aimed to assess personality traits amongst individuals who remember dreams, on the one hand, and to compare scores obtained in sleep disorder, neuroticism and extroversion, as well as indicators of proneness to schizotypy in individuals who cannot remember dreams, on the other. To this end, dream recall frequency was assessed as including strange, unusual and anomalous/paranormal content. Notably, few studies have explored individual differences in such dreams. A sample of 231 men and women with high (n=57) and low (n=174) scores on dream recall quality was clustered in this study. Three instruments that measure sleep stage and two which measure neuroticism, extroversion and schizotypy were used. The most common exotic dreams were auditory dreams, lucid dreams, recurring dreams, psychic dreams, and dreams associated with deceased persons. In comparison with non-dreamers, dreamers had higher scores for sleep disorder, schizotypal experiences, and hypnagogic/hypnopompic experiences. This study supports the idea that some indicators of proneness to schizotypy are associated with the frequency of exotic dream recall.

Asociaciones entre la calidad dormital, esquizotipia y experiencias perceptuales inusuales / Associations between slep quality, schizotypy and unusual perceptual experiences (PPE)

Existen diferencias en términos de la necesidad de dormir en la población general. Algunos estudios sugieren que quienes duermen poco son propensos a generar alucinaciones, de modo que parece haber una posible relación entre la duración del sueño, las alucinaciones y otras experiencias anómalas diurnas. El presente estudio se centra en la comprensión de la etiología de ciertas experiencias perceptuales inusuales (EPIs), mediante la exploración de las relaciones entre la duración del sueño, la esquizotipia, y la calidad del sueño. Se clasificó a una muestra de la población general en la duración del sueño en tres grupos: período corto (n = 202, 46%), mediano (n = 103, 23%) y largo (n = 131, 30%) mediante un ítem del Índice de Calidad de Sueño. También completaron el Inventario de Sentimientos y Experiencias Oxford-Liverpool (O-LIFE) y el Cuestionario de Experiencias Perceptuales Inusuales. Los resultados sugieren que individuos con un período corto de sueño experimentan menor recuerdo y nitidez de las imágenes oníricas, aunque un aumento de experiencias perceptuales inusuales diurnas. La calidad del sueño está directamente relacionada con ciertas experiencias inusuales y la esquizotipia, las cuales parecen estar parcialmente moduladas por la duración del sueño.

There are differences in terms of the need to sleep in the general population. Some studies suggest that short sleepers are likely to produce hallucinations, and that seems to have a possible relationship between sleep duration, hallucinations and other anomalous experiences during daytime. This study focuses on understanding the aetiology of certain unusual perceptual experiences (PPE), by exploring the relationship between sleep duration, schizotypy, and sleep quality. We classified a sample of the general population in sleep duration into three groups: short period (n = 202, 46%), medium (n = 103, 23%) and long (n = 131, 30%) by means of a Pittsburgh Scale item. They also completed the Inventory of Feelings and Experiences Oxford-Liverpool (O-LIFE) and the Unusual Perceptual Experiences Questionnaire. The results suggest that individuals with a short sleep period experience less memory and sharpness of images of dreams, albeit they have an increase in daytime unusual perceptual experiences. Sleep quality is directly related to some unusual experiences and schizotypy, which appears to be partially modulated by sleep duration.

Experiencias perceptuales inusuales, experiencias anómalo/paranormales y propensión a la esquizotipia / Unusual perceptual experiences, anomalous/paranormal experiences and proneness to schizotypy

Parece haber similitudes entre el trastorno esquizotípico de personalidad (TEP) y las experiencias paranormales. De hecho, algunos de los síntomas en el TEP en el Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR) coinciden con un número de experiencias anómalo/paranormales. La esquizotipia positiva, que incluye pensamiento mágico, alucinaciones y otras experiencias perceptuales inusuales, también ha estado relacionada con experiencias y creencias paranormales. Sin embargo, las experiencias paranormales difieren de las experiencias psicóticas en la población no clínica. Para examinar diferencias en síntomas positivos y negativos de esquizotipia se comparó un grupo de individuos interesados en temas paranormales (N = 121) con uno de estudiantes universitarios (N = 588). Como estaba previsto en las hipótesis, las personas interesadas en temas paranormales puntuaron más alto en el subtotal de síntomas positivos de esquizotipia en comparación con los estudiantes, sin diferencias en síntomas negativos. Los síntomas positivos se presentan también en estudiantes que indican tener experiencias paranormales en comparación con aquellos sin experiencias, con una diferencia marginalmente significativa en los síntomas negativos entre ambos grupos.

There seems to be similarities between schizotypal personality and paranormal experiences, in fact, some of the symptoms of PTSD in The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR) match a number of anomalous/paranormal experiences. Positive schizotypy, including magical thinking, hallucinations and other unusual perceptual experiences, has also been associated with paranormal experiences and beliefs. However, paranormal experiences differ from psychotic experiences in nonclinical populations. In order to establish differences between positive and negative symptoms of schizotypy, we compared a group of believers in the paranormal (N = 121) and a sample of undergraduate students (N = 588). The hypothesis that believers would have higher scores in schizotypy positive symptoms was confirmed. There was a significant difference in positive symptoms of schizotypy among the group of students with and no experiences, although not significant for negative symptoms.

Esquizofrenia e criatividade artística / Schizophrenia and artistic creativity

Este artigo constitui um estudo teórico sobre a esquizofrenia e a criatividade artística. O estudo foi baseado no levantamento da produção científica nas bases de dados Web of Science, PsycINFO e Medline, dos últimos dez anos, utilizando as palavras-chave Schizophrenia e Creativity. A maioria dos estudos aponta que o mais provável é que a vulnerabilidade para a esquizofrenia manifeste diferentes vantagens criativas por causa de suas possíveis características perceptuais, cognitivas e de personalidade. Contudo a ideia de que distúrbios do espectro da esquizofrenia possam desencadear a criatividade artística não é defensável. (AU)

This article constitutes itself as a theoretical study about schizophrenia and artistic creativity. The study was based on a survey of the scientific production in the databases Web of Science, PsycINFO and Medline for the last ten years, using the key words Schizophrenia and Creativity. The majority of the studies points out that the most probable fact is that the vulnerability for schizophrenia manifests several creative advantages because of its possible perceptual, cognitive and personality characteristics. However, the idea of a spectrum of schizophrenia to trigger artistic creativity is not defensible. (AU)

Indicadores de propensión a la esquizotipia entre individuos creyentes en lo paranormal: examinando la intensidad de la imaginería, esquizotipia y experiencias alucinatorias / Indicators of proneness to schizotypy among believers in the paranormal: examining the intensity of imagery, schizotypy, and hallucinatory experiences / Indicadores de propensão à esquizotipia entre indivíduos crentes no paranormal: examinando a intensidade das imagens, esquizotipia e experiências alucinatórias

Algunos estudios sugieren que alto grado de creencia en lo paranormal predispone a experimentar una variedad de experiencias paranormales, o incluso a interpretar como tales a un igual o mayor número de experiencias perceptuales anómalas. La propensión a la esquizotipia es otro factor que subyace en el control y mantenimiento de tales creencias. En este estudio se examinan posibles diferencias entre “alucinadores” y “noalucinadores” en una muestra de individuos creyentes en lo paranormal en términos de intensidad de la imaginería auditiva, visual, y táctil, y tres factores de propensidad a la esquizotipia. Se examinó además una muestra de creyentes en lo paranormal que incluyó 158 participantes, 110 mujeres (69,6 por ciento) y 48 varones (30,4 por ciento), rango etario 19 a 75 años (media = 46,83, SD = 11,92), y otra compuesta por 158 participantes estudiantes de psicología, 69 por ciento de mujeres y 30 por ciento varones (edad media = 46,83), de la Universidad Abierta Interamericana. Ambos grupos completaron la escala de imaginería vívida de Betts, el cuestionario Barrett de alucinaciones y el cuestionario de personalidad esquizotípica. Se encontró mayor intensidad de imaginería visual, auditiva y táctil en el grupo de alucinadores en comparación con los no-alucinadores en la muestra de creyentes en lo paranormal, pero no mayor propensión a alucinar. Sin embargo, los alucinadores visuales, auditivos, y táctiles puntuaron más alto en comparación con el factor cognitivo-perceptual que los “no-alucinadores”, y se encontró como el mejor discriminador para las modalidades alucinatorias visual, auditiva y táctil en los estudiantes. Es posible concluir que los creyentes en lo paranormal son personas psicológicamente integradas, no obstante el término alucinación debería ser descartado.

Some studies suggest that a strong belief in the paranormal predisposes one to having a variety of paranormal experiences, or even to an equal or larger extent interpret anomalous perceptual experiences as such. Proneness to shizotypy is another factor that underlies the control and preservation of these beliefs. This study examined possible differences between ”hallucinators” and ”non-hallucinators”, from a sample of believers in the paranormal, in terms of the intensity of auditory, visual and tactile imagery, as well as three factors of proneness to schizotypy. A sample of 158 believers in the paranormal was examined, including 110 women (69.6 percent) and 48 men (30.4 percent), age range 19 to 75 years (M = 46.83, SD = 11.92). A second sample included 158 psychology students, 69 percent women and 30 percent men (age M = 46.83), from the Open Interamerican University. Both groups completed Betts’ Vivid Imagery Scale, Barrett’s Hallucinations Questionnaire, and the Schizotypical Personality Questionnaire. The results revealed greater intensity of visual, auditory and táctiles imagery by hallucinators as compared to non-hallucinators among believers in the paranormal, but no greater proneness to hallucinate. However, the visual, auditory and tactile hallucinators scored higher than non-hallucinators on the cognitiveperceptual factor, which also appeared as the best discriminator of visual, auditory and tactile hallucinatory modalities in the student sample. A possible conclusion is that believers in the paranormal are psychologically integrated individuals; nevertheless the term ”hallucination” should be abandoned.

Alguns estudos sugerem que um elevado grau de crença no paranormal predispõe a experimentar uma variedade de experiências paranormais, inclusive interpretar como paranormais igual ou maior número de experiências perceptuais anormais. A propensão à esquizotipia é outro fator que regula o controle e a manutenção dessas crenças. No presente estudo, são examinadas possíveis diferenças entre “alucinadores” e “não alucinadores”, em uma amostra de indivíduos crentes no paranormal em termos de intensidade da imaginação auditiva, visual e tátil, assim como três fatores da propensão à esquizotipia. Foi avaliado um grupo de crentes no paranormal formado por 158 participantes - 110 mulheres (69,6 percent) e 48 homens (30,4 percent) - cuja faixa etária variou de 19 a 75 anos (média = 46,83, desvio padrão = 11,92). Avaliou-se também outra amostra composta por 158 participantes estudantes de psicologia - 69 percent mulheres e 30 percent homens (média = 46,83) - da Universidad Abierta Interamericana. Ambos os grupos completaram a escala de imagens vívida de Betts, o questionário Barrett de alucinações e o questionário de personalidade esquizotípica. Foi encontrada maior intensidade de imaginação visual, auditiva e tátil no grupo de alucinadores em comparação com os não alucinadores na amostra de crentes no paranormal, mas não se constatou neles maior propensão à alucinação. No entanto, os alucinadores visuais, auditivos e táteis tiveram uma pontuação mais elevada no fator cognitivo-perceptual quando comparados com os “não alucinadores”. Nos estudantes, constatou-se o melhor discriminador para as modalidades alucinatórias visual, auditiva e tátil. É possível concluir que os crentes no paranormal do grupo estudado são pessoas psicologicamente integradas e que o termo alucinação deve ser descartado.

Las experiencias extracorpóreas son una forma de alucinación corporal? / Out-of-body experiences are a form of corporal hallucination?

En una experiencia fuera del cuerpo (EFC), el “ser”, o el centro de la conciencia de un individuo, parece ocupar momentáneamente una posición espacial remota respecto al propio cuerpo. En coincidencia con estudios anteriores, en este estudio se encuentra que una muestra de estudiantes universitarios que tuvieron EFCs (N= 132) mostró niveles más altos de esquizotipia cognitivo-perceptual, disociación, propensión a la alucinación (visual y kinética) e imaginería visual intensa en comparación con quienes no tuvieron EFCs (N= 516). Los resultados ponen de relieve el modelo disociacional de las EFCs. Algunas personas muestran que tales experiencias son más adaptativas que perturbadoras. Aunque estas experiencias perceptuales anómalas tienen una amplia distribución en la población normal, se puede decir que el término “alucinación” puede sonar inapropiado. Este estudio también sugiere que las EFCs están fuertemente correlacionadas con la disociación y la esquizotipia cognitivo-perceptual. Al igual que otras encuestas administradas sobre la población general, se confirma que las experiencias paranormales son comunes en población no-clínicas, y que, aunque pueden estar correlacionadas con la disociación, no necesariamente son indicadores de psicopatología.

Esquizotipia, habilidades "Teoria da Mente" e vulnerabilidade à psicose: uma revisão sistemática

CONTEXTO: A capacidade de inferir estados mentais de terceiros (também chamada habilidade "Teoria da Mente" ou "ToM") desenvolveu-se em decorrência de uma pressão evolutiva exercida por sociedades progressivamente mais complexas e parece estar comprometida na esquizofrenia e em portadores de transtorno esquizotípico de personalidade. Tal comprometimento poderia explicar o aparecimento de sintomas psicóticos nestes indivíduos. OBJETIVO: Revisar criticamente a literatura sobre alterações ToM em indivíduos esquizotípicos ou portadores de sintomas psicóticos subsindrômicos. MÉTODOS: Realizou-se uma busca na base MedLine por trabalhos publicados em inglês e português, entre 1990 e 2008, utilizando a frase "Schizotypal Personality Disorder [MeSH] AND "Theory of Mind" OR "Mentalising". RESULTADOS: Foram selecionados 15 artigos, os quais utilizaram diversos desenhos experimentais e instrumentos para avaliação de traços esquizotípicos, propensão à psicose e habilidades ToM. CONCLUSÕES: Os trabalhos revisados visaram estabelecer relações entre vulnerabilidade à psicose e alterações ToM. Alguns artigos também abordaram o caráter traço ou estado dependente das alterações ToM. A maioria dos trabalhos selecionados sugeriu que indivíduos com escores altos para esquizotipia e familiares de esquizofrênicos apresentam problemas no processamento ToM (este teria, portanto, um caráter traço-dependente). Tais dados devem ser interpretados cuidadosamente em virtude de problemas metodológicos observados na maioria dos estudos.

BACKGROUND: The ability of inferring mental states of others (also named "Theory of Mind" or "ToM" abilitiy) has been developed due an evolution pressure exerted by progressively more complex societies and it might be impaired in schizophrenia and in schizotypal individuals. Such impairment might explain the occurrence of psychotic symptoms in these individuals. OBJECTIVE: To review critically the literature on possible alterations of ToM processing in individuals with schizotypy or subsyndromal psychotic symptoms. METHODS: We performed a search on MedLine database for articles published in English or Portuguese between 1990 and 2008, using the phrase "Schizotypal Personality Disorder [MeSH] AND "Theory of Mind" OR "Mentalising". RESULTS: Fifteen manuscripts have been selected, which used diverse experimental designs and instruments to evaluate schizotypal traits, vulnerability to psychosis and ToM abilities. DISCUSSION: The reviewed articles aimed to establish relationships between vulnerability to psychosis and alterations in ToM processing. Some articles also approached the trait or state dependence character of ToM impairments. The great majority of the selected manuscripts suggested that individuals who scored high in schizotypy scales, as well as schizophrenic relatives, do show problems in ToM processing (which suggests a trait dependence character). However, these results should be interpreted carefully due to methodological problems seen in the majority of the studies.